Organizational Behaviour Written Assignment Essay

Organizations strive to be effective. However, conflicts within an organization can distort the effectiveness of organizations. Potential for conflicts can be found in all organizations. Nowadays there is a need for understanding what exactly causes conflict. With this knowledge, organization can decrease the possibility of encountering conflict. We can describe organizational conflict, as an open argument between two or more individuals/groups within an organization, which leads to a disrupt cooperation (Hatch, 1997). In organizations, conflicts can occur on a horizontal and vertical level. In our research we will focus on vertical level conflicts, which mean that the conflict takes place between people from different hierarchical levels. As Jung (2003) states, conflicts are clearly associated with power/ status within an organization. Therefore, vertical conflicts can be caused by a lack of acceptance of status and power in a hierarchal model. This last point can be attributed to ‘power distance’, one of the culture dimensions of Hofstede. Our moderator model starts with the independent variable â€Å"status† that leads to the dependent variable â€Å"conflict†, and the relationship between these two is influenced by the moderator â€Å"power distance†. Our research question is as follows: Does power distance (moderator) influence the relation between status (IV) and conflict (DV)? If we found out that power distance influence the relation between status and conflicts, we found a cause for conflicts in organizations and then we know how to reduce conflicts, that is the importance of this research question. Hypothesis An increase in status, the independent variable, will lead to a higher possibility of conflict, which is the dependent variable. Hofstede’s dimension of power distance acts as the moderator. Power distance explains how less powerful members of a society, in our case organization, accept that power is unequally distributed. A high power distance refers to an acceptance of a hierarchical order. A low power distance strives for equal distribution of power, and it asks for justification of inequalities of status (geert-hofstede.com). Therefore, our hypothesis is: If there is a hierarchical order and the status increases, the possibility of conflict will also increase. Especially if there is a low power distance. Explanation In this section we will explain what our expectations of the outcome of this research are. If the status of a person in an organization increases that person will have more power over the other employees. We expect that there will be more conflict in the organization due to the fact that there is a more unequal distribution of status. The lower employees have the feeling that they have no say in things, while their supervisor or manager has everything to say. In general this will lead to more vertical conflict. However power distance plays an important role in this. In organizations that have a low power distance, an increase of status will definitely lead to more conflict. This is because organizations with a low power distance strive for an equal distribution of power. The employees will most definitely disagree with the increase of status, and they will not easily accept this. However, in organizations with a high power distance, an increase of status might lead to a little more conflict. But the effect is not as described above. In such organizations there is a hierarchical order that is accepted, which means that we believe that an increase of status will be more accepted. Thus, leads to a lesser increase of conflict than when there is a low power distance. Method We develop a research method in order to determine whether the relationship between status and conflicts is negatively or positively influenced by power distance. The research type that we will use is a survey, more specifically, a questionnaire. We explain the process of how we will do the research method down below. Participants Around 270 people of several companies will be asked during our survey. We supposed that 270 people is a good amount to complete the research successfully and draw a sufficient conclusion. The expected participants who participate in our research are employees, who have to be 20 until 65 years old in order to include the different ages and their views on organizations. We try to equally choose participants from both sexes with a different employment status. We will ask, for example, a CEO, a sales manager and a janitor from the same enterprise to get a good overview through the whole organization and their thoughts about hierarchy and power distance. However, not every company has that much female employees in their organization. Therefore, we will ask more male employees than female employees if it is necessary. Furthermore, our participants will be from different continents, namely: Asia, Europe, and the United States. Procedure We have chosen for three continents to take off our questionnaire in order to make sure that the culture of different continents does not have influence on the results. Another reason that it is a necessity to ask organizations in different continents is the need to get adequate results. We will ask in every continent six companies to participate in our questionnaire, whereof three companies have a strong hierarchy and three companies do not have or have a low hierarchy. Furthermore, the three companies in every continent are divided into a small company with under 100 employees, a middle company with around 500 employees, and a big company with over 1000 employees. In every company, there will be 15 employees asked to participate in the questionnaire. The questionnaire will be taken off by the online-questionnaire method. We send the several CEOs of the companies the questionnaires by email. It is not possible for us to take off all the questionnaires face-to-face because of the geographical distance between the continents. However, we will provide the questionnaires with a very clear explanation about the questionnaire. We expect that the whole procedure will take around 15 minutes per person. Measurement Our questionnaire will include 20 statements regarding to hierarchy and conflicts at the workplace. The answers varying from a number of 1 to 7, with at the left side strongly agree and at the opposite site strongly disagree. The front page of the questionnaire is about some general background information like their age, sex, status in the company, and their nationality. However, there are also some limitations associated with the survey. Firstly, it is possible that organizations and participants do not want to participate in the survey for several reasons. Secondly, there is a chance that people do not understand the questions right and giving therefore an insufficient answer. Because we are not using the face-to-face method, it is not possible for us to explain the question clearly to the participator during the questionnaire. Lastly, there could be some message barriers because we make use of an online questionnaire send by email. For instance, the CEO does not read the email because it was marked as spam. To put all together, our research method is a survey, more specifically, a questionnaire with 20 statements regarding to the hierarchy and conflicts at the workplace. There will be asked 18 companies in three different continents with in total 270 employees. It is an online questionnaire send to the CEOs of the specific companies by email with clear explanations. Bibliography http://geert-hofstede.com http://ejbo.jyu.fi/pdf/ejbo_vol10_no1_pages_22-28.pdf Jung, S. (2003), â€Å"The effects of organizational culture on conflict resolution in marketing,† Journal of American Academy of Business, Vol. 3 September, pp. 242-46. Katz, D. and Kahn, R. L. (1978), The Social Psychology of Organization, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Review of Timeline by Michael Crichton

Review of Timeline by Michael Crichton The purpose of history is to explain the presentto say why the world around us is the way it is. History tells us what is important in our world, and how it came to be. Michael Crichton, Timeline Ill admit it right up front: I dont like historical fiction much. When authors are sloppy in their research, I find the inaccuracies distracting enough to ruin what might otherwise be a good story. But even when the representation of the past is largely authentic (and to be fair, there are some extraordinary authors who really know their stuff), fictionalization makes history much less enjoyable for me. What can I say? Im a hopeless history buff. Every minute I spend reading fiction is a minute Id rather spend learning historical fact. Heres another confession: Im not a big fan of Michael Crichton. I do find good science fiction fascinating (a genre that pushes the edges of what if is as mind-expanding for me as a scholarly discipline that asks what really happened). And Crichton isnt a bad writer, but none of his works has ever made me sit up and say, Wow! While his ideas can be intriguing, they all seem to make much better movies. Whether this is because his style lacks the immediacy of film or because I have to spend less time plowing my way through the story I have yet to decide. So, as you can well imagine, I was predisposed to despise Crichtons semi-historical novel Timeline. The Up Side of  Timeline Surprise! I liked it. The premise was appealing, the action was gripping, and the ending was dramatically satisfying. Some of the cliffhangers and segues were very nicely executed. While there wasnt a single character I could identify with or even like very much, I was pleased to see some character development as a result of the adventure.  The good guys grew more likable; the bad guys were really bad. Best of all, the medieval setting was mostly accurate, and well-realized to boot. This alone makes the book a worthwhile read, especially for those who are unfamiliar or only somewhat familiar with the Middle Ages. (Unfortunately, this is a rather large percentage of the population.) Crichton effectively points up some common misconceptions about medieval life, presenting the reader with a vivid picture that is at times much more attractive, and at other times much more frightening and repellent, than that generally presented to us in popular fiction and film. Of course there were errors; I cant imagine an error-free historical novel. (Fourteenth-century people larger than modern folk? Not likely, and we know this from the skeletal remains, not surviving armor.) But for the most part, Crichton really managed to bring the Middle Ages alive. The Down Side of  Timeline I did have some problems with the book. Crichtons usual technique of expanding the cutting-edge technology of today into a believable science-fiction premise fell sadly short. He spent too much effort trying to convince the reader that time travel could be possible, then used a theory that struck me as internally inconsistent. Though there may be an explanation for this apparent flaw, it was never addressed clearly in the book. I suggest you avoid a close examination of the technology and accept it as a given in order to enjoy the story more. Furthermore, the characters who were surprised by the realities of the past were people who should have known better. The general public may think the Middle Ages were uniformly filthy and dull; but encountering examples of good hygiene, splendid interior decor or swift swordplay shouldnt surprise a medievalist. This makes the characters not very good at their jobs or, worse, it presents the erroneous impression that historians dont bother with the details of material culture. As an amateur medievalist, I find this rather annoying. Im sure professional historians would be downright insulted. Still, these are aspects of the book that are easy to overlook once the action is truly underway. So get ready for an exciting ride into history. Update Since this review was written in March of 2000, Timeline was made into a feature-length, theatrical-release movie, directed by Richard Donner and starring Paul Walker, Frances OConnor, Gerard Butler, Billy Connolly and David Thewlis. It is now available on DVD. Ive seen it, and its fun, but it hasnt broken into my list of Top 10 Fun Medieval Films. Michael Crichtons now-classic novel is available in  paperback, in  hardcover, on  audio CD  and in a  Kindle edition  from Amazon. These links are  provided as a convenience to you; neither Melissa Snell nor About is responsible for any purchases you make through these links.

Darners, Family Aeshnidae

Darners, Family Aeshnidae Darners (Family Aeshnidae) are large, robust dragonflies and strong fliers. Theyre usually the first odonates youll notice zipping around a pond. The family name, Aeshnidae, was likely derived from the Greek word aeschna, meaning ugly. Description Darners command attention as they hover and fly around ponds and rivers. The largest species can reach 116 mm in length (4.5 inches), but most measure between 65 and 85 mm long (3 inches). Typically, a darner dragonfly has a thick thorax and a long abdomen, and the abdomen is slightly narrower just behind the thorax. Darners have huge eyes that meet broadly on the dorsal surface of the head, and this is one of the key characteristics to differentiate members of the family Aeshnidae from other dragonfly groups. Also, in darners, all four wings have a triangle-shaped section that extends lengthwise along the wing axis (see an illustration here). Classification Kingdom – Animalia Phylum – Arthropoda Class – Insecta Order – Odonata Suborder  - Anisoptera Family - Aeshnidae Diet Adult darners prey on other insects, including butterflies, bees, and beetles, and will fly considerable distances in pursuit of prey. Darners can catch small insects with their mouths while in flight. For larger prey, they form a basket with their legs and snatch the insect out of the air. The darner may then retreat to a perch to consume the meal. Darner naiads are also predaceous and are quite skilled at sneaking up on prey. The dragonfly naiad will hide within the aquatic vegetation, slowly crawling closer and closer to another insect, a tadpole, or a small fish, until it can strike quickly and catch it. Life Cycle Like all dragonflies and damselflies, darners undergo simple or incomplete metamorphosis with three life stages: egg, nymph (also called larva), and adult. Female darners cut a slit into an aquatic plant stem and insert their eggs (which is where they get the common name darners). When the young emerges from the egg, it makes its way down the stem into the water. The naiad molts and grows over time, and may take several years to reach maturity depending on the climate and species. It will emerge from the water and molt a final time into adulthood. Special Behaviors and Defenses: Darners have a sophisticated nervous system, which enables them to visually track and then intercept prey in flight. They fly almost constantly in pursuit of prey, and males will patrol back and forth across their territories in search of females. Darners are also better adapted to handle cool temperatures than other dragonflies. Their range extends farther north than many of their odonate cousins for this reason, and darners often fly later in the season when cool temperatures prevent other dragonflies from doing so. Range and Distribution Darners are widely distributed throughout the world, and the family Aeshnidae includes over 440 described species. Just 41 species inhabit North America. Sources Aeshna vs. Aeschna. Opinions and declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1958). Vol. 1B, pages 79-81.Borror and Delongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, by Charles A. Triplehorn and Norman F. Johnson.Dragonflies and Damselflies of the East, by Dennis Paulson.Aeshnidae: The Darners, Digital Atlas of Idaho, Idaho Museum of Natural History website. Accessed online May 7, 2014.World Odonata List, Slater Museum of Natural History website. Accessed online May 7, 2014.Dragonfly Behavior, Minnesota Odonata Survey Project. Accessed online May 7, 2014.Aeshnidae, by Dr. John Meyer, North Carolina State University. Accessed online May 7, 2014.Family Aeshnidae – Darners, Bugguide.net. Accessed online May 7, 2014.Dragonflies and Damselflies, University of Florida. Accessed online May 7, 2014.Eight pairs of descending visual neurons in the dragonfly give wing motor centers accurate population vector of prey direction, Paloma T. Gonz alez-Bellido et al, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, January 8, 2013. Accessed online May 7, 2014.

Finance and Growth Strategies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Finance and Growth Strategies - Assignment Example The paper tells that dividends are returns which are paid to the shareholders from the firm’s earnings for their investment in the company regardless of whether the earnings are generated in previous period or the current period. Dividends will influence the capital structure of the firm since retained earnings increase the value of the common stock than debt capital. A firm cannot assume the dividend policy to be irrelevant. In determining the amount to be paid as dividends, the firm should analyze the effect of the dividend policy on the operations of the. However, some financial analysts are of the opinion that dividend policy is irrelevant since it does not change the value of the firm. Investors can adjust the investment portfolios when if their preference is a steady source of income hence they can invest in bonds where the interest payments are certain rather than investing in common stocks where the dividend payments fluctuate. Another argument of the opponents of divi dend payment is that taxation of dividends is higher hence capital gains are more preferable by investors. They propose that the firm should reinvest the earnings which will ultimately increase the value of the firm hence increasing the share value. The firm should utilize its earnings in undertaking more investment projects, repurchasing the common stock and acquiring more profitable companies thus increasing the market value of the common stock... The firm is also supposed to make a decision on the timing of the payment of the dividends whereby interim and final dividends can be paid from the earnings of the firm (Khan 2004). The board of directors is supposed to make a decision on the amount to pay where a constant dividend pay out ratio or fluctuating dividend pay out ratio may be implemented by the firm. The firm may also adopt a residual policy on the payment of dividends. The dividend policy has to take in to account several practical considerations which include the following (Khan 2004). Long term financing decision The dividend policy can be termed as a financing decision when retained earnings are considered as cheap source of finance. The dividend policy should consider the investment opportunities which are available (Khan 2004). If the firm ahs viable investment opportunities which exist, the dividend policy which is adopted should be residual dividend decision where dividends are paid only after enough funds have been allocated to the viable investment opportunities (Khan 2004). Retained earnings are a cheaper source of funds since they do not involve the floatation costs. Payment of cash dividends would reduce the funds available for the long term financing decisions when the firm may not have other sources of finance (Harold 2009). In this case, the firm may decide to pay bonus shares as dividends to the stockholders and invest the retained earnings in other profitable opportunities since the share value of the stocks increase with the increase in the value of the firm (Harold 2009). Financial needs of the firm Retained earnings of the firm are cheaper source of finance for reinvestment purposes. If the internal rate of return of the firm

Business Law Term Paper (Case Study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Law Term Paper (Case Study) - Essay Example The jurisdiction of a particular subject matter refers to the authority of the court to preside cases concerning contracts and civil right issues. States court are granted general jurisdiction that allow them to hear any case unless it is prohibited by the law of the state. Some states prohibit subject matter jurisdiction for cases not involving their state citizen, and those that happens outside the state. They also include those that are the mandate of federal courts. In the case study, one of a legal case arising on the jurisdiction is when company violated the law by operating in three different jurisdictions, yet its plumber was licensed in only one jurisdiction. There was a jurisdiction to hear the case between Knarles and Chentum as the state courts have general jurisdiction and the case was among those under the docket of the state laws. Furthermore, it does not qualify to be handled by the federal court (Rakoff, 2013). Tot refers to civil cases or cases that deal with conflicts between private individuals. It can be redressed by paying of damages. This is a remedy by compensating the harmed party by monetary awards. Damages legally refers to the money that law directs one to pay after breach of duty or violation of a particular right. There are two categories of damages, which are punitive and compensatory. In the case of the former, they are awarded to punish the offending party, while the later were awarded to compensate the affected party for the loss or injury. The damages are further classified to liquidated and nominal damages. There are general guidelines that govern the damages to be awarded. For instance, it’s a general concept that punitive damages cannot be imposed in contractual cases that have not been proven to be wanton, deliberate or willful In the study, the case between Knarles and centum falls under the torts, since it is a civil case dealing with a conflict between private individuals. In

CARING AS AN ART Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CARING AS AN ART - Essay Example In Bernice’s book â€Å"from silence to voice: what nurses know and must communicate to the public† the definition of a patient is expanded to include a person who is not aware of the requirements to improve and protect his health and therefore nurses must help him pass the information on his health needs. Health is the psychological, physical and societal well being of an individual, which cannot be taken to mean absence of an illness. Bernice expands this definition of health to include the right of a patient to have his needs understood as this helps in increasing speed of recovery and protection against illnesses. Environment is defined as the surrounding or the conditions that an individual lives in; this definition does not deviate very much from the one that is meant in Bernice’s book. The only difference is that Bernice has used the word environment in a health setting to include all stakeholders in health care. Caring can be defined as an art since it re quires an individual, who is probably the nurse to perform several functions at the same time, for instance, a nurse is required to answer questions that a patient might ask, show compassion, provide a patient with food and at the same time provide medical attention. In addition, a nurse is also responsible for communicating the condition of a patient to the physician, pass information to the family and community on how to care for the patient to help him recover fully and any other information that is required by stakeholders. Performing these responsibilities at the same time define nursing as an art. As a science, nursing is concerned with the results of the process of health care; what is wrong with the patient? Why is the patient in the hospital? What information is needed in order to plan the care that is to be given to patient? In addition, when should the doctor intervene? Are some of the practises that need to be supported with evidence therefore making nursing a science. T he interaction of the two aspects of nursing is critical to the provision of quality nursing care since omission of one aspect may hinder fast and full recovery of the patient. For instance, when performing a certain procedure, such as feeding a patient on a certain type of food, explaining to the patient why your are giving him that type of food will enable him to have confidence in you therefore he is likely to cooperate. A friend of mine who has been in the nursing profession for the last 10 year had several experiences with patients that shaped her career in nursing. One of the experiences she had involved a patient suffering from cerebral malaria whom she had been allocated to take care of. The patient was always violent and did not want anybody close to him including the physician who was treating him. Attempts to tie him to his bed or give him sedatives had proven futile since his violence tendencies did not stop. As the nurse in charge, my friend decided to use a different a pproach; she would go to the patient’s bedside and try to talk to him in a bid to convince him they were trying to help him. Initially the patient was violent towards my friend but after some few days, he calmed down and was willing to listen to what my friend had to say. She would explain to him about the condition he was suffering and how the doctor would help him and after sometime, the patient was very

Financing Education in Developing Countries

Financing Education in Developing Countries How should developing countries finance university education? Explain your answer with cross reference to developed country experiences of financing University Education. Word Count: 4023 1. Introduction Education, its nature, purpose, its provision, and most importantly, its funding, are major topics of cultural and ideological debates which remain a central point of concern even today. Till the 1980s, the social democratic consensus, in England and New Zealand for example, considered education to be a public good, and therefore an indispensable service, provided by the state, to all citizens equally, without direct charge. The New Zealand Treasure writers, for example, argue that education doesnt belong to the marketplace. It should be considered a Natural Sphere and a public good which needs state intervention (The New Zealand Treasury, 1987). However, New-Right arguments of the 1980s challenged this school of thought, asserting education is a commodity which should be left to the market forces with minimum state intervention (Grace, 1994). Barr (1993), for example, asserts education is not a public good since it does not exhibit the three reflections of public goods: non-rivalnes s, non-excludability and non-rejection (Barr, 1993). This lead to the dilemma of financing higher education: How should countries finance higher education? This essay begins with a theoretical framework, looking at the human capital theory to understand why education is important followed by a brief discussion on the key issues concerning financing higher education to understand why cost sharing has become a popular phenomenon over the years. Major alternatives to state financing are discussed using examples from different countries followed by a conclusion and a brief policy recommendation. 2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Human Capital Theory Education is considered to be, both, a consumer and capital good (Okemakinde, 2008), because not only does it offer utility to a consumer, but also acts as input towards the production of other goods and services. It is, therefore, also considered to be highly effective and even necessary, to bring about an improvement in the production capacity of a country.   (Okemakinde, 2008) With the increase in economic development and structural change the requirement for skilled workers is increasing across all economies, resulting in an increasing demand for employees with higher education ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Authors including Okemakinde (2008 ) and Psacharopoulos (1986) consider formal education to be an investment in human capital (table 1). The human capital theory, thus, encourages investment in education both in developing and developed countries (I. Fà ¤gerlind, 2002). Figure 1 Returns to investment in education by country type and level (Psacharopoulos, 1986) Education and development policies have largely been based on the theoretical framework of the Human Capital Theory, which stresses on the high returns of education, in terms of productivity and efficiency of workers, and eventually economic development (Ozturk, 2001). 2.2 State funding and the need for alternatives Countries with socio-political ideologies consider education to be a public good and, consequently, should be free or considerably subsidised. This ideology claims the society to be the major beneficiary of higher education and asserts substantial taxes can be raised, progressive in nature, if there is political will and proper leadership. Such taxes will cover costs of education, allowing students, especially among the poor, to have equal access to education (Johnstone, 2003). Previously, higher education in most developing countries was predominantly financed and provided by the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986), such as majority of Sub-Saharan Africa (Teferra, 2013) (McGavin, 1991), India (Tilak, 1995) and China (Cheng, 1995).   However, Psacharopoulos (1986) argues such a system lacks sustainability, efficiency and quality. In fact, till the 1960s most universities in the UK were funded by the state. As seen in figure 2, the shift away from public funding has increased the participation rate in higher education in the UK (Haynes, 2003). Figure 2 Index of student numbers and public funding for higher education, 1980/1-1999/2000 (Haynes, 2003) A dominant theme of higher education throughout the world in the 1990s has been financial distress (Johnstone, 1998). The upsurge in the demand for financing higher education (Johnstone, 2003), coupled with constrained public budgets, has been a major challenge faced by governments in both, developing as well as developed countries (Woodhall 2007,   Akpochafo 2009).   However, as the number of students enrolled in higher education increased, the subsidies introduced when enrollments were low proved to be unsustainable (Woodhall, 2007). According to Woodhall (2007), with the expansion of higher education systems and the difficulty addressing the costs of higher education through public expenditure, the last twenty years have seen major changes in how higher education has been financed worldwide. These include; an introduction of tuition fees in countries where higher education was free, a substantial increase in tuition fees and a shift towards student loans (Woodhall, 2007). Therefore, parallel systems of financial assistance and cost sharing have been introduced so that students and parents arent burdened by the cost of university education and equality and accessibility isnt compromised (Johnstone, 1998). 3. Alternative Methods of Financing Higher Education 3.1 Tuition fees, selective scholarships and grants Most developed countries shifted costs of education from taxpayers to students, in the form of tuition fees, decades ago. Tuition and fees in public and private universities have established in the US for a long time (Johnstone, 1998).The tuition fees for UK full-time undergraduates at a university in the UK were paid from public funds until 1998, when tuition fee was introduced (Barr, 1998).   This trend is now being followed by developing countries as well (Johnstone 1998, Salmi 1998, Hans de Wit 2005). Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Jamaica have higher levels of student financing, similar to those seen in Ireland, the Republic of Korea, and Spain. (Hans de Wit, 2005) Figure 3   cost recovery at public universities in Latin America and the Caribbean (Hans de Wit, 2005) In countries like as Bolivia, Guatemala and Thailand, cost recovery is low, or nonexistent like Brazil and Argentina, as seen in figure 3. It is important to note the drop-out rates in these countries. According to Hans De Wit (2005), the annual number of graduates in Columbia has risen over time as opposed to Argentina, where education is publically funded and drop-out rate is higher (figure 4). Figure 4 annual number of students admitted to and graduated universities in Argentina and Columbia, 1982-2001 (Hans de Wit, 2005) Johnstone   (1998) notes higher education in Hungary faced problems like inefficiency, inequality and lack of responsiveness to the market economy. The public sector was financing higher education, spending 86% per capita GDP on higher education in 1993 alone. This, compared to 45% in OECD countries and 30% in Germany, is a considerably high amount. As a result, the need for a shift in cost burden was felt. In 1995 full-time students paid a monthly tuition fee of HUF 2000 in public universities, while part-time students paid up to HUF 8000 per month. In order to ensure equality in access, tuition fee was fully or partially waived, based on academic merit or financial need, for one-fifth of the students (Johnstone, 1998). Figure 5 Higher education in Hungary, 1990/91 versus 2006/07 (Marcucci, 2008) The state support per student was 40 % lower in 1998 than it had been in 1990. Reforms in 2005 recommend state funding for at least 35% of graduate students and 10% for doctoral students and in 2007 the Ministry of Education allotted 60% of its scholarship funds to merit based students and 35-40% to students in need of financial aid (Marcucci, 2008). This shift of the cost burden away from the government resulted in an increase in overall participation rate in Hungary (figure 5). According to Rosovsky (2001), during the 1990s, Makerere University in Uganda moved from a situation where the government covered all running costs and students did not pay for education to one where more than 70 % of the students paid, resulting in twice the amount of student enrolment and development of infrastructure. While imposing tuition fee is considered to shift the burden of financing higher education away from the government, it is argued that tuition fees or increasing it at a rapid rate might exclude potential students from disadvantaged families. (Johnstone, 2003), thus compromising on the access and equity of university education. 3.2 Loans and deferred payment schemes Financial aid such as loans, means-tested grants and selective scholarships are being introduced to preserve equity and access to university education (Psacharopoulos 1986, Johnstone 1998). Comparing grants and scholarships to loans and other types of deferred payments, the latter tends to relieve the burden of the cost of higher education on the government and raise the universitys revenue. Loans are also more likely to encourage the involvement of market forces, thus leading to efficiency and increased responsiveness of the university (Johnstone, 2003). Furthermore, the problem of exclusion associated with rising tuition fees can be met with the availability of loans and deferred payment schemes that dont consider the financial worth of students and their families (Johnstone, 2003). Student loans in Hungary, sponsored and guaranteed by the government, were introduced by a student loan company owned by the Hungarian State, Dià ¡khitel Kà ¶zpont, in 2001 (Marcucci, 2008). These loans cover tuition fees and living costs, are not means-tested and are available to all students enrolled in public and private higher education institutions in Hungary or the European Economic Area (ibid), thus ensuring equity and access. Other forms of deferred payments, where students bear a certain share of the cost burden and repay the amount gradually, once they have been employed, are also an alternative to recovering expenses. (Johnstone 1998, 2003). Examples of such payment schemes are graduate taxes, a concept never fully adopted (Barr, 1998), the income surtax implemented in Australia (Johnstone, 1998, 2003), and the drawdown pension payment system implemented to repay the student loan fund in Ghana (Johnstone, 2003). In the graduate tax system, the current cost burden incurred by the government for the support of education is not immediately relieved. However, over time, future income surtax payments, which are collectively (potentially) sizeable, albeit highly uncertain, shift the ultimate financial burden away from the government (Johnstone, 1998).   In this system, students incur low or no tuition and living costs. However, once they start earning they have to pay more income tax than they would have otherwise (ibid). The more one earns the more one pays back, thus argued to be progressive in nature and believed to prevent high debt rates among graduate students (BBC, 2010). The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme launched in 1998 provided income contingent loans through the Higher Education Loan Programme to help students pay their tuition fee (Johnstone, 1998). Students start repaying the debt once their income is above a certain amount ($54,126 in 2015-2016).   The amount is readjusted on a yearly basis to reflect any changes in Consumer Price Index, thus maintaining the real value of the debt. Participation levels of domestic students in higher education have increased from 3.7% of the population between the ages of 15 to 64 in 1989 to 6.6% in 2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Figure 6 and 7 show a sharp increase in participation of students after income contingent loans, or graduate taxes, were introduced. Figure 6 Domestic higher education participation and bachelor or higher attainment 1989-2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015) Figure 7 University participation by SES: 1988-99 persons (Chapman, 2005) However, such schemes are also critiqued to be inefficient and politically costly (Johnstone, 2003). High earners might choose to work out of the country to avoid the graduate tax. Not only will this result in tax being evaded but also may lead to a brain drain (BBC, 2010). Other than student emigration, payments are often lost due to high defaults and lack of tax records. As Johnstone (1998) notes, applicability of graduate tax to developing countries depends on the degree to which the income tax system can be trusted. Additionally high costs associated with servicing and collecting make such schemes a less attractive option (Johnstone, 2003). According to Psacharopoulos (1986), loans encourage expenditure on education. If the returns to investment in university education are high, loans will help students invest in education, or human capital, consequently increasing the demand for higher education and the flow of private resources into the sector (Psacharopoulos, 1986). However, problems associated with lending loans, such as high collection costs and substantial cases of evasion, have discouraged the development of effective schemes for financing higher education in developing countries. Private banks find the risks and costs of lending too large to incur without charging a prohibitive interest rate, resulting in the governments providing or funding loan programs for students (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Repayment, especially in developing countries, is a major cause of concern associated with lending loans. According to Tilak (1995), only 5.9% of the investments made on student loan programmes in India during 1963-64 to 1987-88 were recovered. Furthermore, according to Johnstone (2003), the willingness to borrow and lend is important since students prefer their financial aid to be non-repayable 3.3   Expansion of private universities Since most developing countries have a highly centralised education sector, stringent rules and barriers restrict the operation and contribution of community run and private institutions. Easing these controls and decentralising management will allow mobilisation of private and local resources in the education sector, reducing the fiscal burden on the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986). The lack of available places in state universities led to the establishment of private universities (Oyebade, 2008). Romania had no private universities before 1989. Laws passed in 1990 resulted in the creation of 70 private institutions, almost all of them claiming university status and enrolling one-third of total enrolments in higher education (Johnstone, 1998). In 1981 in Chile the number of private and public universities charging tuition fees increased. In 1990, 52.4% of the total enrolment was provided for by private universities with no funding from the state. The state, previously incurring all costs, financed only 27% in 1990.   The increasing number of private universities helped meet the rising demand for university education, increased access to higher education and increased diversity, with no costs incurred by the government. However, this change also resulted in an increased tuition fee, falling quality and an uncontrolled rise in the number of private institutions (Johnstone, 1998). Oyebade (2008) finds private universities in Nigeria have increased from 3 institutions in 1999 to 24 in 2006. However, Oyebade adds, the cost of private university education and the poverty level may lead to problems like lack of access and equity. With 90 million people living in absolute poverty in Nigeria, the enrolment of students in private universities is effected considerably. Only one of the seven universities operational in 2005, were fully enrolled and the remaining six, despite being functional for over six years, were not. Private institutions are widely criticized for their lack of quality, as seen in Chile in 1990, and equity, as seen in Nigeria. Additionally, Johnstone (1998) adds, their sustainability is also questionable since their major source of revenue is tuition fees alone. 4. Entrepreneurial Activities Another alternative to finance higher education is generating income through entrepreneurial activities such as selling services, contracting research and renting out facilities. Exploring new ways of generating revenue is a great way for universities to improve quality, be more innovative and increase their relevance in the society by providing services in response to the societys needs (Hans de Wit, 2005). Universities in Mexico began to realise the need for internal revenue generation since government support was not likely to grow, consequently, turning towards entrepreneurial activities, involving faculty and students to raise extra income. Different departments began to generate revenue by providing services and specialised courses (Johnstone, 1998). According to Rena (2006), the University of Zambia and Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique have benefited from entrepreneurial activity in the form of improved capacity, information and revenue by establishing and linking internet nodes to local electronic networks and selling their subscriptions. Rena (2006) also adds Ghana and Nsukkas initiatives of consulting activities have proven to be a successful entrepreneurial activity. Ghana claimed a profit of 9% on total revenue of US$22700 in 1991 by providing consultancies through their consultancy centre. Nsukka indicated a profit of US$35,238 through its consultancies between 1982 and 1991. With an income of US$90,398, the consultants received 50% of the profits while the university received 30% and the department received 20%. In Makerere University in Uganda, where previously the government incurred all costs of education, recent entrepreneurial activity generated more than 30% of revenue (Rosovsky, 2001). Makerere has raised revenue through evening classes, commercially running their bookshop and bakery and establishing a consultancy bureau with staff where a portion of the generated revenue goes back into the university (ibid). Universities in China generated income through university enterprises, commissioned training programs and educational services, research (Cheng, 1995) and consultancies and logistic services (World Bank, 1997). According to World Banks report (1997) revenue generated from universities contribute to around 3.7% of total higher education revenue in China. In Shanghai, 50 universities ran approximately 700 enterprises with the total revenue of Y 1 billion in 1992 alone. Fudan Universitys entrepreneurial activities raised a total revenue of Y 20 million, out of which Y 2 million was invested back into the university (World Bank, 1997). Commissioned training, an effective way to earn additional revenue due to the rising demand for skill upgrading, was the second largest source of revenue, constituting around 2.3% of total higher education revenue.   Provision of educational services added up to about 1.1% of the total revenue. For example, the Department of Law of Peking University gene rated revenue by providing short training courses on recently implemented laws to employees belonging to public and private organisations. Income from research and consultancy added up to 1.3% of the revenue in 1992. Income from research in 36 national universities added up to Y1.12 billion. Additionally, logistical services such as running dining halls and hostels, although not highly lucrative, constituted around 0.7% of the revenue (ibid). According to Johnstone (1998), most risks associated with entrepreneurship in developing countries can be overcome by ensuring the activities are legalised and are supported with clear regulations and transparency and efficiency in management and procedures. Entrepreneurial activities, such as those carried out in China, Africa and Mexico, have not only benefitted the universities by raising extra revenue, but also benefitted the economy by increasing responsiveness to consumer needs. 5. Philanthropic: Philanthropic activities and initiatives targeted towards higher education can build up funds for scholarships and grants in public and private universities. Although many cultures and societies have a strong tradition of charity, however, these contributions often ignore higher education since it is either considered a private good or the responsibility of the government (Johnstone, 2003) The Aga Khan University and the Lahore University of Management Sciences, top ranking universities in Pakistan (HEC, 2016), are good examples of successful philanthropic initiatives, established and partly operated through private philanthropy (Rosovsky, 2001). Donations made to educational institutes in china are either used as merit scholarships for students, for faculty training overseas or construction of university buildings bearing the name of the donor (World Bank, 1997). However, most initiatives cannot depend on such financial generosity in developing countries (Rosovsky, 2001). Small provincial universities in underdeveloped, far-flung areas are rarely the recipients of such donations, augmenting the problem of rising disparity between universities and inequalities (World Bank, 1997). 6. Part-time employment for students According to Johnstone (2003), many American students hold jobs that require 20 to 40 hours a week. The encouragement and financial support of the Federal Work-Study Program, which partially subsidises education, and an economy that has an abundance of summer and term-time, part-time employment opportunities, has allowed students in the US to finance their education to a great extent. However, for this to be possible, a robust economy with widespread availability to such low-paying but readily available jobs is necessary. This feature may be largely absent in many countries, especially in developing countries (ibid). 7. Distance learning The trend of distance education has quickly spread across various countries including Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand (Johnstone, 1998). China, for example, has a network of provincial universities, and a television university, for distance learning programs and education (Johnstone, 1998). After the 1986 National Policy on Education in India, open and distance universities became a means of overcoming the problem inequity and unmet demand for higher education (Tilak, 1995). Approximately 3 million part-time students and 4 million full-time students in India were enrolled in correspondence courses (Johnstone, 1998), which are considered to generate revenue much above the correspondence costs (Tilak, 1995). Distance education and open learning programs can be an effective way of increasing access to university education at moderate costs (Johnstone, 1998). 8. Policy recommendations and conclusion Psacharopoulos (1986) posits generous scholarship schemes covering tuition costs and living expenses are not suitable in the long run because over time, as lower income students start to enrol in higher education, the cost of providing grants and scholarships will become a burden on the government. An increase in the role of private actors in the provision of, and contribution to, higher education is a   popular recommendation (Psacharopoulos   1986,   Johnstone 1998). However, some oversight and regulation may be needed to ensure standards are maintained fraudulent operators are kept at bay.   As Johnstone (1998) suggests, privatisation should be used as a tool to increase access to education, however, the government should continue to provide monitoring and regulation.   Additionally, a greater role of private and community-run schools will encourage competition, eventually leading to higher efficiency and managerial accountability (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Furthermore, Oyebade (2008) stresses on the need for effective student aid programmes, like loan facilities that have a repayment system that is easily traceable, so that students are able to incur the costs of private university education. Psacharopoulos (1986) emphasises on complementing the shift towards increased private financing with the provision student loans and limited selective scholarships, thus not compromising on access of education. Loans allow students to finance their current studies so that those with limited funds arent denied selection into higher education.   Furthermore, to further avoid selection bias and ensure access, the Psacharopoulos (1986) suggests the use of selective scholarships granted on the basis of financial need and academic merit. This will not only provide students with an incentive to perform better but also ease the financial burden of students belonging to poor families, thus minimising inequalities in access to university education. Johnstone (1998) suggests the introduction of private higher education supported through tuition fees, thus shifting the cost away from the government. He further suggests the introduction of loans and means-tested grants to ensure equity and access to higher education. Psacharopoulos (1986) recommends developing a credit market for higher education, where access to education can be augmented through widely available loans and deferred payment schemes. In countries where collection of loans poses a problem,   an alternative being used is repayment in kind through national service (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Educations institutions can raise significant income by offering various products and services such as training programs, marketing the expertise of faculty, carrying out laboratory tests, renting facilities, research and consultancies and centralised programs for teacher training (Rosovsky, 2001). In recent years, it has become possible and permissible for companies to pay for manpower supplied by higher education, for example commissioned training where employers pay a fee in return for a training course for their employees. Another means is rewarded allocation where institutions ask for a fee from the employers in return for the employment of a graduate. The fees being a compensation for the training cost of the manpower provided (Cheng, 1995). Policies encouraging such activities will not only generate additional revenue but encourage innovation and allow educational institutions to provide products and services the society needs. Lastly, part-time and seasonal jobs should be encouraged through state policies and programs, such as the Federal Work-Study Program in the US. Part-time jobs should be readily available for students so that they are able to finance their studies. Additionally, this method not only shifts the cost burden of higher education away from the students families but also decreases the dependency of students on other means of financing such as state funding, loans, scholarships or grants. References Department of Education and Training, 2015. Higher Education in Australia. Barr, N., 1993. The economics of the welfare state. Barr, N. A., 1998. Economics of the Welfare State. BBC, 2010. Tuition fees and graduate tax: Whats the difference?, s.l.: s.n. Bruce Chapman, C. R., 2005. 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