Business Law Term Paper (Case Study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Law Term Paper (Case Study) - Essay Example The jurisdiction of a particular subject matter refers to the authority of the court to preside cases concerning contracts and civil right issues. States court are granted general jurisdiction that allow them to hear any case unless it is prohibited by the law of the state. Some states prohibit subject matter jurisdiction for cases not involving their state citizen, and those that happens outside the state. They also include those that are the mandate of federal courts. In the case study, one of a legal case arising on the jurisdiction is when company violated the law by operating in three different jurisdictions, yet its plumber was licensed in only one jurisdiction. There was a jurisdiction to hear the case between Knarles and Chentum as the state courts have general jurisdiction and the case was among those under the docket of the state laws. Furthermore, it does not qualify to be handled by the federal court (Rakoff, 2013). Tot refers to civil cases or cases that deal with conflicts between private individuals. It can be redressed by paying of damages. This is a remedy by compensating the harmed party by monetary awards. Damages legally refers to the money that law directs one to pay after breach of duty or violation of a particular right. There are two categories of damages, which are punitive and compensatory. In the case of the former, they are awarded to punish the offending party, while the later were awarded to compensate the affected party for the loss or injury. The damages are further classified to liquidated and nominal damages. There are general guidelines that govern the damages to be awarded. For instance, it’s a general concept that punitive damages cannot be imposed in contractual cases that have not been proven to be wanton, deliberate or willful In the study, the case between Knarles and centum falls under the torts, since it is a civil case dealing with a conflict between private individuals. In

CARING AS AN ART Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CARING AS AN ART - Essay Example In Bernice’s book â€Å"from silence to voice: what nurses know and must communicate to the public† the definition of a patient is expanded to include a person who is not aware of the requirements to improve and protect his health and therefore nurses must help him pass the information on his health needs. Health is the psychological, physical and societal well being of an individual, which cannot be taken to mean absence of an illness. Bernice expands this definition of health to include the right of a patient to have his needs understood as this helps in increasing speed of recovery and protection against illnesses. Environment is defined as the surrounding or the conditions that an individual lives in; this definition does not deviate very much from the one that is meant in Bernice’s book. The only difference is that Bernice has used the word environment in a health setting to include all stakeholders in health care. Caring can be defined as an art since it re quires an individual, who is probably the nurse to perform several functions at the same time, for instance, a nurse is required to answer questions that a patient might ask, show compassion, provide a patient with food and at the same time provide medical attention. In addition, a nurse is also responsible for communicating the condition of a patient to the physician, pass information to the family and community on how to care for the patient to help him recover fully and any other information that is required by stakeholders. Performing these responsibilities at the same time define nursing as an art. As a science, nursing is concerned with the results of the process of health care; what is wrong with the patient? Why is the patient in the hospital? What information is needed in order to plan the care that is to be given to patient? In addition, when should the doctor intervene? Are some of the practises that need to be supported with evidence therefore making nursing a science. T he interaction of the two aspects of nursing is critical to the provision of quality nursing care since omission of one aspect may hinder fast and full recovery of the patient. For instance, when performing a certain procedure, such as feeding a patient on a certain type of food, explaining to the patient why your are giving him that type of food will enable him to have confidence in you therefore he is likely to cooperate. A friend of mine who has been in the nursing profession for the last 10 year had several experiences with patients that shaped her career in nursing. One of the experiences she had involved a patient suffering from cerebral malaria whom she had been allocated to take care of. The patient was always violent and did not want anybody close to him including the physician who was treating him. Attempts to tie him to his bed or give him sedatives had proven futile since his violence tendencies did not stop. As the nurse in charge, my friend decided to use a different a pproach; she would go to the patient’s bedside and try to talk to him in a bid to convince him they were trying to help him. Initially the patient was violent towards my friend but after some few days, he calmed down and was willing to listen to what my friend had to say. She would explain to him about the condition he was suffering and how the doctor would help him and after sometime, the patient was very

Financing Education in Developing Countries

Financing Education in Developing Countries How should developing countries finance university education? Explain your answer with cross reference to developed country experiences of financing University Education. Word Count: 4023 1. Introduction Education, its nature, purpose, its provision, and most importantly, its funding, are major topics of cultural and ideological debates which remain a central point of concern even today. Till the 1980s, the social democratic consensus, in England and New Zealand for example, considered education to be a public good, and therefore an indispensable service, provided by the state, to all citizens equally, without direct charge. The New Zealand Treasure writers, for example, argue that education doesnt belong to the marketplace. It should be considered a Natural Sphere and a public good which needs state intervention (The New Zealand Treasury, 1987). However, New-Right arguments of the 1980s challenged this school of thought, asserting education is a commodity which should be left to the market forces with minimum state intervention (Grace, 1994). Barr (1993), for example, asserts education is not a public good since it does not exhibit the three reflections of public goods: non-rivalnes s, non-excludability and non-rejection (Barr, 1993). This lead to the dilemma of financing higher education: How should countries finance higher education? This essay begins with a theoretical framework, looking at the human capital theory to understand why education is important followed by a brief discussion on the key issues concerning financing higher education to understand why cost sharing has become a popular phenomenon over the years. Major alternatives to state financing are discussed using examples from different countries followed by a conclusion and a brief policy recommendation. 2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Human Capital Theory Education is considered to be, both, a consumer and capital good (Okemakinde, 2008), because not only does it offer utility to a consumer, but also acts as input towards the production of other goods and services. It is, therefore, also considered to be highly effective and even necessary, to bring about an improvement in the production capacity of a country.   (Okemakinde, 2008) With the increase in economic development and structural change the requirement for skilled workers is increasing across all economies, resulting in an increasing demand for employees with higher education ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Authors including Okemakinde (2008 ) and Psacharopoulos (1986) consider formal education to be an investment in human capital (table 1). The human capital theory, thus, encourages investment in education both in developing and developed countries (I. Fà ¤gerlind, 2002). Figure 1 Returns to investment in education by country type and level (Psacharopoulos, 1986) Education and development policies have largely been based on the theoretical framework of the Human Capital Theory, which stresses on the high returns of education, in terms of productivity and efficiency of workers, and eventually economic development (Ozturk, 2001). 2.2 State funding and the need for alternatives Countries with socio-political ideologies consider education to be a public good and, consequently, should be free or considerably subsidised. This ideology claims the society to be the major beneficiary of higher education and asserts substantial taxes can be raised, progressive in nature, if there is political will and proper leadership. Such taxes will cover costs of education, allowing students, especially among the poor, to have equal access to education (Johnstone, 2003). Previously, higher education in most developing countries was predominantly financed and provided by the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986), such as majority of Sub-Saharan Africa (Teferra, 2013) (McGavin, 1991), India (Tilak, 1995) and China (Cheng, 1995).   However, Psacharopoulos (1986) argues such a system lacks sustainability, efficiency and quality. In fact, till the 1960s most universities in the UK were funded by the state. As seen in figure 2, the shift away from public funding has increased the participation rate in higher education in the UK (Haynes, 2003). Figure 2 Index of student numbers and public funding for higher education, 1980/1-1999/2000 (Haynes, 2003) A dominant theme of higher education throughout the world in the 1990s has been financial distress (Johnstone, 1998). The upsurge in the demand for financing higher education (Johnstone, 2003), coupled with constrained public budgets, has been a major challenge faced by governments in both, developing as well as developed countries (Woodhall 2007,   Akpochafo 2009).   However, as the number of students enrolled in higher education increased, the subsidies introduced when enrollments were low proved to be unsustainable (Woodhall, 2007). According to Woodhall (2007), with the expansion of higher education systems and the difficulty addressing the costs of higher education through public expenditure, the last twenty years have seen major changes in how higher education has been financed worldwide. These include; an introduction of tuition fees in countries where higher education was free, a substantial increase in tuition fees and a shift towards student loans (Woodhall, 2007). Therefore, parallel systems of financial assistance and cost sharing have been introduced so that students and parents arent burdened by the cost of university education and equality and accessibility isnt compromised (Johnstone, 1998). 3. Alternative Methods of Financing Higher Education 3.1 Tuition fees, selective scholarships and grants Most developed countries shifted costs of education from taxpayers to students, in the form of tuition fees, decades ago. Tuition and fees in public and private universities have established in the US for a long time (Johnstone, 1998).The tuition fees for UK full-time undergraduates at a university in the UK were paid from public funds until 1998, when tuition fee was introduced (Barr, 1998).   This trend is now being followed by developing countries as well (Johnstone 1998, Salmi 1998, Hans de Wit 2005). Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Jamaica have higher levels of student financing, similar to those seen in Ireland, the Republic of Korea, and Spain. (Hans de Wit, 2005) Figure 3   cost recovery at public universities in Latin America and the Caribbean (Hans de Wit, 2005) In countries like as Bolivia, Guatemala and Thailand, cost recovery is low, or nonexistent like Brazil and Argentina, as seen in figure 3. It is important to note the drop-out rates in these countries. According to Hans De Wit (2005), the annual number of graduates in Columbia has risen over time as opposed to Argentina, where education is publically funded and drop-out rate is higher (figure 4). Figure 4 annual number of students admitted to and graduated universities in Argentina and Columbia, 1982-2001 (Hans de Wit, 2005) Johnstone   (1998) notes higher education in Hungary faced problems like inefficiency, inequality and lack of responsiveness to the market economy. The public sector was financing higher education, spending 86% per capita GDP on higher education in 1993 alone. This, compared to 45% in OECD countries and 30% in Germany, is a considerably high amount. As a result, the need for a shift in cost burden was felt. In 1995 full-time students paid a monthly tuition fee of HUF 2000 in public universities, while part-time students paid up to HUF 8000 per month. In order to ensure equality in access, tuition fee was fully or partially waived, based on academic merit or financial need, for one-fifth of the students (Johnstone, 1998). Figure 5 Higher education in Hungary, 1990/91 versus 2006/07 (Marcucci, 2008) The state support per student was 40 % lower in 1998 than it had been in 1990. Reforms in 2005 recommend state funding for at least 35% of graduate students and 10% for doctoral students and in 2007 the Ministry of Education allotted 60% of its scholarship funds to merit based students and 35-40% to students in need of financial aid (Marcucci, 2008). This shift of the cost burden away from the government resulted in an increase in overall participation rate in Hungary (figure 5). According to Rosovsky (2001), during the 1990s, Makerere University in Uganda moved from a situation where the government covered all running costs and students did not pay for education to one where more than 70 % of the students paid, resulting in twice the amount of student enrolment and development of infrastructure. While imposing tuition fee is considered to shift the burden of financing higher education away from the government, it is argued that tuition fees or increasing it at a rapid rate might exclude potential students from disadvantaged families. (Johnstone, 2003), thus compromising on the access and equity of university education. 3.2 Loans and deferred payment schemes Financial aid such as loans, means-tested grants and selective scholarships are being introduced to preserve equity and access to university education (Psacharopoulos 1986, Johnstone 1998). Comparing grants and scholarships to loans and other types of deferred payments, the latter tends to relieve the burden of the cost of higher education on the government and raise the universitys revenue. Loans are also more likely to encourage the involvement of market forces, thus leading to efficiency and increased responsiveness of the university (Johnstone, 2003). Furthermore, the problem of exclusion associated with rising tuition fees can be met with the availability of loans and deferred payment schemes that dont consider the financial worth of students and their families (Johnstone, 2003). Student loans in Hungary, sponsored and guaranteed by the government, were introduced by a student loan company owned by the Hungarian State, Dià ¡khitel Kà ¶zpont, in 2001 (Marcucci, 2008). These loans cover tuition fees and living costs, are not means-tested and are available to all students enrolled in public and private higher education institutions in Hungary or the European Economic Area (ibid), thus ensuring equity and access. Other forms of deferred payments, where students bear a certain share of the cost burden and repay the amount gradually, once they have been employed, are also an alternative to recovering expenses. (Johnstone 1998, 2003). Examples of such payment schemes are graduate taxes, a concept never fully adopted (Barr, 1998), the income surtax implemented in Australia (Johnstone, 1998, 2003), and the drawdown pension payment system implemented to repay the student loan fund in Ghana (Johnstone, 2003). In the graduate tax system, the current cost burden incurred by the government for the support of education is not immediately relieved. However, over time, future income surtax payments, which are collectively (potentially) sizeable, albeit highly uncertain, shift the ultimate financial burden away from the government (Johnstone, 1998).   In this system, students incur low or no tuition and living costs. However, once they start earning they have to pay more income tax than they would have otherwise (ibid). The more one earns the more one pays back, thus argued to be progressive in nature and believed to prevent high debt rates among graduate students (BBC, 2010). The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme launched in 1998 provided income contingent loans through the Higher Education Loan Programme to help students pay their tuition fee (Johnstone, 1998). Students start repaying the debt once their income is above a certain amount ($54,126 in 2015-2016).   The amount is readjusted on a yearly basis to reflect any changes in Consumer Price Index, thus maintaining the real value of the debt. Participation levels of domestic students in higher education have increased from 3.7% of the population between the ages of 15 to 64 in 1989 to 6.6% in 2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Figure 6 and 7 show a sharp increase in participation of students after income contingent loans, or graduate taxes, were introduced. Figure 6 Domestic higher education participation and bachelor or higher attainment 1989-2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015) Figure 7 University participation by SES: 1988-99 persons (Chapman, 2005) However, such schemes are also critiqued to be inefficient and politically costly (Johnstone, 2003). High earners might choose to work out of the country to avoid the graduate tax. Not only will this result in tax being evaded but also may lead to a brain drain (BBC, 2010). Other than student emigration, payments are often lost due to high defaults and lack of tax records. As Johnstone (1998) notes, applicability of graduate tax to developing countries depends on the degree to which the income tax system can be trusted. Additionally high costs associated with servicing and collecting make such schemes a less attractive option (Johnstone, 2003). According to Psacharopoulos (1986), loans encourage expenditure on education. If the returns to investment in university education are high, loans will help students invest in education, or human capital, consequently increasing the demand for higher education and the flow of private resources into the sector (Psacharopoulos, 1986). However, problems associated with lending loans, such as high collection costs and substantial cases of evasion, have discouraged the development of effective schemes for financing higher education in developing countries. Private banks find the risks and costs of lending too large to incur without charging a prohibitive interest rate, resulting in the governments providing or funding loan programs for students (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Repayment, especially in developing countries, is a major cause of concern associated with lending loans. According to Tilak (1995), only 5.9% of the investments made on student loan programmes in India during 1963-64 to 1987-88 were recovered. Furthermore, according to Johnstone (2003), the willingness to borrow and lend is important since students prefer their financial aid to be non-repayable 3.3   Expansion of private universities Since most developing countries have a highly centralised education sector, stringent rules and barriers restrict the operation and contribution of community run and private institutions. Easing these controls and decentralising management will allow mobilisation of private and local resources in the education sector, reducing the fiscal burden on the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986). The lack of available places in state universities led to the establishment of private universities (Oyebade, 2008). Romania had no private universities before 1989. Laws passed in 1990 resulted in the creation of 70 private institutions, almost all of them claiming university status and enrolling one-third of total enrolments in higher education (Johnstone, 1998). In 1981 in Chile the number of private and public universities charging tuition fees increased. In 1990, 52.4% of the total enrolment was provided for by private universities with no funding from the state. The state, previously incurring all costs, financed only 27% in 1990.   The increasing number of private universities helped meet the rising demand for university education, increased access to higher education and increased diversity, with no costs incurred by the government. However, this change also resulted in an increased tuition fee, falling quality and an uncontrolled rise in the number of private institutions (Johnstone, 1998). Oyebade (2008) finds private universities in Nigeria have increased from 3 institutions in 1999 to 24 in 2006. However, Oyebade adds, the cost of private university education and the poverty level may lead to problems like lack of access and equity. With 90 million people living in absolute poverty in Nigeria, the enrolment of students in private universities is effected considerably. Only one of the seven universities operational in 2005, were fully enrolled and the remaining six, despite being functional for over six years, were not. Private institutions are widely criticized for their lack of quality, as seen in Chile in 1990, and equity, as seen in Nigeria. Additionally, Johnstone (1998) adds, their sustainability is also questionable since their major source of revenue is tuition fees alone. 4. Entrepreneurial Activities Another alternative to finance higher education is generating income through entrepreneurial activities such as selling services, contracting research and renting out facilities. Exploring new ways of generating revenue is a great way for universities to improve quality, be more innovative and increase their relevance in the society by providing services in response to the societys needs (Hans de Wit, 2005). Universities in Mexico began to realise the need for internal revenue generation since government support was not likely to grow, consequently, turning towards entrepreneurial activities, involving faculty and students to raise extra income. Different departments began to generate revenue by providing services and specialised courses (Johnstone, 1998). According to Rena (2006), the University of Zambia and Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique have benefited from entrepreneurial activity in the form of improved capacity, information and revenue by establishing and linking internet nodes to local electronic networks and selling their subscriptions. Rena (2006) also adds Ghana and Nsukkas initiatives of consulting activities have proven to be a successful entrepreneurial activity. Ghana claimed a profit of 9% on total revenue of US$22700 in 1991 by providing consultancies through their consultancy centre. Nsukka indicated a profit of US$35,238 through its consultancies between 1982 and 1991. With an income of US$90,398, the consultants received 50% of the profits while the university received 30% and the department received 20%. In Makerere University in Uganda, where previously the government incurred all costs of education, recent entrepreneurial activity generated more than 30% of revenue (Rosovsky, 2001). Makerere has raised revenue through evening classes, commercially running their bookshop and bakery and establishing a consultancy bureau with staff where a portion of the generated revenue goes back into the university (ibid). Universities in China generated income through university enterprises, commissioned training programs and educational services, research (Cheng, 1995) and consultancies and logistic services (World Bank, 1997). According to World Banks report (1997) revenue generated from universities contribute to around 3.7% of total higher education revenue in China. In Shanghai, 50 universities ran approximately 700 enterprises with the total revenue of Y 1 billion in 1992 alone. Fudan Universitys entrepreneurial activities raised a total revenue of Y 20 million, out of which Y 2 million was invested back into the university (World Bank, 1997). Commissioned training, an effective way to earn additional revenue due to the rising demand for skill upgrading, was the second largest source of revenue, constituting around 2.3% of total higher education revenue.   Provision of educational services added up to about 1.1% of the total revenue. For example, the Department of Law of Peking University gene rated revenue by providing short training courses on recently implemented laws to employees belonging to public and private organisations. Income from research and consultancy added up to 1.3% of the revenue in 1992. Income from research in 36 national universities added up to Y1.12 billion. Additionally, logistical services such as running dining halls and hostels, although not highly lucrative, constituted around 0.7% of the revenue (ibid). According to Johnstone (1998), most risks associated with entrepreneurship in developing countries can be overcome by ensuring the activities are legalised and are supported with clear regulations and transparency and efficiency in management and procedures. Entrepreneurial activities, such as those carried out in China, Africa and Mexico, have not only benefitted the universities by raising extra revenue, but also benefitted the economy by increasing responsiveness to consumer needs. 5. Philanthropic: Philanthropic activities and initiatives targeted towards higher education can build up funds for scholarships and grants in public and private universities. Although many cultures and societies have a strong tradition of charity, however, these contributions often ignore higher education since it is either considered a private good or the responsibility of the government (Johnstone, 2003) The Aga Khan University and the Lahore University of Management Sciences, top ranking universities in Pakistan (HEC, 2016), are good examples of successful philanthropic initiatives, established and partly operated through private philanthropy (Rosovsky, 2001). Donations made to educational institutes in china are either used as merit scholarships for students, for faculty training overseas or construction of university buildings bearing the name of the donor (World Bank, 1997). However, most initiatives cannot depend on such financial generosity in developing countries (Rosovsky, 2001). Small provincial universities in underdeveloped, far-flung areas are rarely the recipients of such donations, augmenting the problem of rising disparity between universities and inequalities (World Bank, 1997). 6. Part-time employment for students According to Johnstone (2003), many American students hold jobs that require 20 to 40 hours a week. The encouragement and financial support of the Federal Work-Study Program, which partially subsidises education, and an economy that has an abundance of summer and term-time, part-time employment opportunities, has allowed students in the US to finance their education to a great extent. However, for this to be possible, a robust economy with widespread availability to such low-paying but readily available jobs is necessary. This feature may be largely absent in many countries, especially in developing countries (ibid). 7. Distance learning The trend of distance education has quickly spread across various countries including Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand (Johnstone, 1998). China, for example, has a network of provincial universities, and a television university, for distance learning programs and education (Johnstone, 1998). After the 1986 National Policy on Education in India, open and distance universities became a means of overcoming the problem inequity and unmet demand for higher education (Tilak, 1995). Approximately 3 million part-time students and 4 million full-time students in India were enrolled in correspondence courses (Johnstone, 1998), which are considered to generate revenue much above the correspondence costs (Tilak, 1995). Distance education and open learning programs can be an effective way of increasing access to university education at moderate costs (Johnstone, 1998). 8. Policy recommendations and conclusion Psacharopoulos (1986) posits generous scholarship schemes covering tuition costs and living expenses are not suitable in the long run because over time, as lower income students start to enrol in higher education, the cost of providing grants and scholarships will become a burden on the government. An increase in the role of private actors in the provision of, and contribution to, higher education is a   popular recommendation (Psacharopoulos   1986,   Johnstone 1998). However, some oversight and regulation may be needed to ensure standards are maintained fraudulent operators are kept at bay.   As Johnstone (1998) suggests, privatisation should be used as a tool to increase access to education, however, the government should continue to provide monitoring and regulation.   Additionally, a greater role of private and community-run schools will encourage competition, eventually leading to higher efficiency and managerial accountability (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Furthermore, Oyebade (2008) stresses on the need for effective student aid programmes, like loan facilities that have a repayment system that is easily traceable, so that students are able to incur the costs of private university education. Psacharopoulos (1986) emphasises on complementing the shift towards increased private financing with the provision student loans and limited selective scholarships, thus not compromising on access of education. Loans allow students to finance their current studies so that those with limited funds arent denied selection into higher education.   Furthermore, to further avoid selection bias and ensure access, the Psacharopoulos (1986) suggests the use of selective scholarships granted on the basis of financial need and academic merit. This will not only provide students with an incentive to perform better but also ease the financial burden of students belonging to poor families, thus minimising inequalities in access to university education. Johnstone (1998) suggests the introduction of private higher education supported through tuition fees, thus shifting the cost away from the government. He further suggests the introduction of loans and means-tested grants to ensure equity and access to higher education. Psacharopoulos (1986) recommends developing a credit market for higher education, where access to education can be augmented through widely available loans and deferred payment schemes. In countries where collection of loans poses a problem,   an alternative being used is repayment in kind through national service (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Educations institutions can raise significant income by offering various products and services such as training programs, marketing the expertise of faculty, carrying out laboratory tests, renting facilities, research and consultancies and centralised programs for teacher training (Rosovsky, 2001). In recent years, it has become possible and permissible for companies to pay for manpower supplied by higher education, for example commissioned training where employers pay a fee in return for a training course for their employees. Another means is rewarded allocation where institutions ask for a fee from the employers in return for the employment of a graduate. The fees being a compensation for the training cost of the manpower provided (Cheng, 1995). Policies encouraging such activities will not only generate additional revenue but encourage innovation and allow educational institutions to provide products and services the society needs. Lastly, part-time and seasonal jobs should be encouraged through state policies and programs, such as the Federal Work-Study Program in the US. Part-time jobs should be readily available for students so that they are able to finance their studies. Additionally, this method not only shifts the cost burden of higher education away from the students families but also decreases the dependency of students on other means of financing such as state funding, loans, scholarships or grants. References Department of Education and Training, 2015. Higher Education in Australia. Barr, N., 1993. The economics of the welfare state. Barr, N. A., 1998. Economics of the Welfare State. BBC, 2010. Tuition fees and graduate tax: Whats the difference?, s.l.: s.n. Bruce Chapman, C. R., 2005. The access implications of income-contingent charges forhigher education: lessons from Australia. Cheng, K.-m., 1995. A Chinese model of higher education? Lessons from reality. In: L. B. a. K. King, ed. Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education. s.l.:s.n. Grace, G., 1994. Education is a Public Good: On the Need to Resist the Domination of Economic Science . In: Education and the Market Place. s.l.:Psychology Press. Hans de Wit, I. C. J. J. G.-à . a. J. K., 2005. Higher Education in Latin America: The International Dimension. Haynes, D. G. a. M., 2003. Funding Higher Education in the UK: The Role of Fees and Loans. HEC, 2016. 5 th Ranking of Pakistani Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) 2015. I. Fà ¤gerlind, L. J. S., 2002. Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective. s.l.:s.n. Johnstone, B., 2003. Cost Sharing in Higher Education: Tuition, Financial Assistance, and Accessibility in a Comparative Perspective. Johnstone, D. B., 1998. The Financing and Management of Higher Education: A Status Report on Worldwide Reforms. Marcucci, M. S. a. P., 2008. Higher Education Finance and Cost-Sharing in Hungary. McGavin, P. A., 1991. Reform in the Financing of Higher Education in Papua New Guinea. Okemakinde, D. O. a. T., 2008. Human Capital Theory: Implications for Educational Development. Oyebade, G. I. a. S., 2008. From Public University Dominance to Private University Policy Initiatives in Nigeria: The Push and Pull Factors. Psacharopoulos, G., 1986. Financing Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options.. Rena, R., 2006. Higher Education in Africa A Case of Eritrea. Rosovsky, D. B. a. H., 2001. Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise.. Salmi, J., 1998. Strategy for Higher Education Development in Latin America: Executive Summary.. Teferra, D., 2013. Funding Higher Education in Africa: State,Trends and Perspectives. The New Zealand Treasury, 1987. Government Management: Brief to the Incoming Government 1987 Volume II Education Issues. Tilak, J. B., 1995. Higher education in India at a cross-roads. In: L. B. a. K. King, ed. Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education. s.l.:s.n. Woodhall, M., 2007. Funding Higher Education: The Contribution of Economic Thinking to Debate and Policy Development. World Bank, 1997. China Higher education reform. A World Bank country study..

Cognitive Psychology and Modern Policing Essays -- Psychology Criminal

The intention of this essay is to explore the area surrounding how cognitive psychology has affected or disaffected policing practices and the positive or negative outcomes of it. To do this, a deeper understanding of the terms cognitive and psychology, along with their interactive relationship had to be expounded. The scope of cognitive psychology is vast in relation to the public and police, particularly due to the fact that it is an individual process with many external mitigating factors. Therefore I have attempted to narrow the field and concentrate on a couple of specific examples of the use of cognitive psychology, while attempting to explain the theories behind the processes. What is psychology? In basic terms it is simply the study of the mind, but that very general description has a much wider application as the psychology of today differs from that of two centuries ago. Psychology as a discipline dates back to the nineteenth century when a philosopher named William Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory at a German university. What Wundt and his co-workers attempted to do was to investigate the mind through introspection, which was observing and analysing the structure of the subjects conscious mental processes, (Thoughts, images and feelings), under controlled conditions. Today's psychology has dramatically changed and is now focused on how ones behaviour changes as a result of experience. Cognitive means to learn, to observe, to experience. When applied to psychology it is further broken down into how that particular learning observations and experience directs a person's development. Factors such as physical, emotional, educational and behavioural cognitive (copycat learning) are influenced by parents... ...orary Psychology (Dec 2001) APA review of Books Volume 46, No 6 Gleitman (1992) Basic Psychology (third edition): WW Norton & Co Harrison, P. (1983) Inside the Inner City; Penguin Books Hollin. C, Koppen. P, Penrod. S (2003) Psychology, Crime and Law (journal); Volume 9, No 2: Brunner Routledge King. R, Winchup. E, (2000) Doing Research on Crime and Justice: Oxford University Press McLaughlin and Muncie (2001) The Sage Dictionary of Criminology: Sage Publications Maguire. M, Morgan. R, Reiner. R (1994) Oxford Handbook of Criminology: Oxford Press Roger, Hopkins, Burke (1998) Zero Tolerance Policing: Perpetuity Press Rose, D (1992) A Climate of Fear: Bloomsbury Press S.E.G. Lea (1984) Instinct, Environment and Behaviour: New essential Psychology Talor, Peplau, Sears (1994) Social Psychology (eighth edition): Prentice-Hall

Big Ideas in Science Essay

Food, it has become the final frontier. No longer are the days where oranges come from Florida or California, and cheese from Wisconsin. We are a global society and can export and import food from anywhere. As you are reading this, you might be enjoying some grapes from Argentina or drinking water from Iceland. Let’s see where a couple of meals came from, shall we? I’m not much on breakfast, mostly because I don’t get up in time to eat anything. Today though, I had a bagel with cream cheese. There’s not a lot of information on where the cream cheese is made or where the ingredients come from. Its Wal-Mart brand, so I’m guessing they outsource to some local company. The bagels are from Lender’s, and there is some information on them. The wheat that is used in the bagel is from the Western prairies of the United States and the water is found locally at the plant (Lender’s, 2012). I have to have something to wash this down with, and my breakfast drink of choice is Sunny D. According to the website, Sunny D’s juice is sourced from Florida (Sunny D, 2012). So far, I seem to be having a pretty American day as far as meals are concerned. After breakfast, most of my day is spent at work. I normally have to include both lunch and dinner because I work twelve hours or more a day. I work at Pizza Hut, so getting something to eat is easy. Unfortunately, there isn’t a lot of information on the origins of the food. I know the wheat used in the pizza crust is from the Midwest and I believe the cheese is from California (Pizza Hut, 2012). My beverages are an assortment of Pepsi products that are bottled at different plants around the United States. I guess I’m not much of an international eater, but at times I can be, it’s just been a busy week. Since it seems that most of my meals are processed foods or from a restaurant, my food arrives about the same way. The wheat or fruit is harvested and loaded onto trucks. These trucks take the produce to the factory where it is milled or juiced and mixed with other ingredients and preservatives, until the final product is reached. It is then bagged or bottled and shipped to a warehouse. It sits in the warehouse until picked and delivered to the store where they can be purchased. When I was in college getting my business degree, we talked a lot about the global market and its benefits. One of these benefits is more competition. Yes, competition is a benefit. It not only provides more choices, but competition means that companies will try different things to keep its customers. This can range from promotions to new lines of product. Lender’s bagels for example, not only have plain bagels, but also blueberry, strawberry, and cinnamon raisin. Another benefit of a global market is that it gives companies a broader market size. With a bigger market, companies are able to receive income from multiple sources rather than just locally. The internet has really helped the global market. You can order products direct from Germany, even though they’re not sold at your local store. You have to love our digital age. Being a global market can also have its negative impacts. Being from the south, I can remember my mom telling me, â€Å"You’re getting too big for your britches.† I know, it’s a weird saying, but it holds true for a lot of things. Companies that try to be global can sometimes â€Å"get too big† and lose sight of what his happening locally. The expansion in China and Europe become such a priority, that their backyard gets overgrown with weeds. It can also produce poor products. How many times have you received something from overseas that breaks within its first week? Or, you call technical support for a company based in Dallas, TX and get someone in India? I’m not saying that to be racist or anything, but a local company should take care of its local people. â€Å"Think Globally, Act Locally†. This can be interpreted many ways because we all think differently. For me, it means that you should consider the â€Å"big picture† and the benefits of introducing your product or service to a broader base. While doing this, however, you should take care of those around you. I had a former supervisor that would tell us, â€Å"Dance with the one that brought you.† I don’t know where he got that phrase from, but he was trying to tell us that we may get promoted or moved to a busier store, but don’t forget what brought you to that point. Go ahead and expand your operations to Europe and Asia, but don’t forget the people of St. Louis (or wherever) that supported you while you were growing. After all this research, my way of choosing goods really hasn’t changed. Even after studying the global market back in business classes, I still looked at products the same. While I appreciate the local producers and will buy their stuff, I’m also a cheapskate that goes for the best deal. I am willing to pay more, for example, I’ll shop my hometown drug store before going to Wal-Mart, even though it might cost a little more. The service and convenience will make up for the slightly higher price. I also like to try new things. I’ll try a new beer that’s imported from Mexico or Australia, but I’ll still keep some Bud Light in the fridge. I will agree that we should buy American, but we don’t always make the best stuff. The global market has its ups and downs. It’s like a marriage, most of the time it’s a wonderful union that makes people happy and provides the needs for each other. Other times, it seems like mommy (global company) and daddy (local company) just can’t get along. If the children (consumers) make the right decisions and try to â€Å"Think Globally, Act Locally† themselves, it might help the marriage. Then again, maybe we should just cut ties with the rest of the world and â€Å"Think Locally, Act Locally†, what do you think about that?

Being on Time Essay

Being at the right place at the right time for any person is extremely important to the daily life and military life. Being dependable, accountable, and disciplined are all crucial factors that go along with it. Being on time shows that a person is dependable and have his or her priorities straight. Being where one needs to be at the right time always one of the most important aspects of everything you want to succeed in. Failure to be on time not only hinders your time to get tasks done but also wastes the time of those waiting on you. If you want to fix this use good time management. It is important to realize that it is necessary for a person to hold themselves at a higher standard if the wish to excel in life, the military, or whatever you wish to succeed in. Punctuality remains and always will be an extremely vital aspect of military bearing and discipline. It has a direct connection to a person’s appearance, task effectiveness, and essentially every aspect of life and responsibility. I cannot place enough importance on how significant being on time constantly is. For instance; a person who is late or does not report at all to a place at the time stated effectively compromises and reduces the efficiency of which the task or mission at hand can be completed. It also makes it so other people are waiting on you to put out information. This makes it so you waste their time so then they may be late for something and you make them look bad. No one should every try to be sabotaging someone else because of their laziness and inability to be considerate of others. Not being on time also shows that you are not accountable or unaccountable. This is also a direct reflection of yourself and what others feel they should treat you like. Like a wise man once said â€Å"If you act like a child you will be treated like a child.† And really what grown man or women wants to be treated like they are 15 years old and have people hold their hand constantly. Not I not you not anyone. Also by getting this cause from the effect u made of acting like a child it also makes your ability to exceed and excel in life or the military diminish greatly. Also it makes you unreliable and that’s never a good trait to have. Time management is a way to correct this problem. By setting alarms to get up on time, leaving sooner to give yourself enough time to get to one place to another, and making sure you have enough time to do the things you need to do or the things you want to do. Also if you set things up the night before you will not be in such a rush to get things done the next day. If you do not have good time management you will fail in just about every aspect of life in or out of the military. Remember to plan ahead. Good time management is a major key to not make these kinds of mistakes. In conclusion being on time greatly reflects your dependability, accountability, and discipline. These factors affect your opportunity to excel and be the best you can be. Also good time management is key and a way to correct the problem of not being on time. Being on Time Essay Being on time is very important. It is a sign of respect to the person you are meeting. If you are always late, you’re creating a bad reputation for yourself. People feel they can’t trust you or rely on you, so it impacts relationships. It also impacts self-esteem. Being late is upsetting to others and stressful for the one who is late. People’s stress level is very high when they’re late. They’re racing, worried, and anxious. They spend the first few minutes apologizing. And that’s not the best way to making a good impression. So if you want to be on time you must first figure out why you are always late. The reason can usually be classified as either technical or psychological. For example if you’re always late by a different amount of time 5 minutes sometimes, 15, or even 40 minutes other times it is likely that the cause is technical. It’s a case of bad planning, of thinking you need less time than you actually do. Another technical difficulty for some people is the inability to say â€Å"no† to additional commitments when they’re short on time. But if you are literally always 10 minutes late, it’s psychological. You’re arriving exactly when you want. The question is why? For some people, it’s a resistance thing. They don’t want to do what other people expect them to. Another category is the â€Å"crisis-maker†. These are people who cannot get themselves together until they get an adrenaline rush. They need to be under the gun to get them selves moving. There are also people who are late because they worry they won’t have nothing to do while waiting. This problem can be solved easily. Always carry a book or magazine. So you aren’t feeling bored and you don’t have the feeling of â€Å"excess† time when you are waiting. And that’s not the only thing that can help you to deal with lateness. You can also†¦ †¢ Clean out your purse or briefcase each evening so it’s ready to go the next morning. †¢ Know how much money is in your wallet so you won’t run out of cash at an awkward time. †¢ Give up that â€Å"one last thing† before walking out the door. †¢ Think about what you could do with an extra five minutes for every place where you arrive early. †¢ Review your plans for the rest of the day and make note of things that have changed. †¢ Keep a clock in a prominent location so you can check it quickly when you have to leave your activities. †¢ Always keep keys, purse and backpack on hooks and a shelf by the exit door. †¢ Set your clocks 5 to 10 minutes ahead. Although remember that at dinner party it’s rude to arrive early; you might surprise the host and find him in his bathrobe vacuuming. In Japan, China, Germany and the United States being on time is the rule. In other places, such as Latin America punctuality is rare. Punctuality exhibits respect for the time of others; you do not waste their time while they wait for you. But it makes it difficult for Germans to act spontaneously. You can’t really call someone and say, ‘Let’s go for a coffee. ‘ Many Germans will want that date in their diaries for at least a week. Back in the technological dark ages, you couldn’t contact people so easily, so you made an effort to meet them on time. Nowadays if you are running late you simply call the person and delay or cancel the meeting. However that should not become a habit, because you may delay, but time will not. I used to be late all the time. But I’ve got tired of running down the street to catch the bus and bored of explaining to everyone why I’m late again. So I decided to deal with the problem. First step was setting my clocks 5 min ahead and it really works for me. But I realized that everything is in my head. I just have to decide that the meeting or event is just too important for me to be late. I won’t say I’m always on time, but I’m trying. As someone else said: â€Å"Better late than never, but better never late! † [pic].